Vpawitrasari's Weblog

Stages of Second Language Acquisition

vpawitrasari — Fri, 01 Feb 2008 11:35:01 +0000

Acquiring language is a process that involves several stages. The first stage is often called “the silent period” because the students aren’t doing much talking yet. In school it varies. Some kids are ready to self-generate language (to speak on their own, without a prompt) after two months, but it could take up to a year. However, even if they’re not producing language, they are working hard making sense of the sounds.

Stage	About how long?	About how many words?
Preproduction (the “Silent Period”)	10 hours to 6 months	500 receptive words
Early Production	An additional 6 months	1000 receptive/active words
Speech Emergence	An additional 1 year	3000 active words
Intermediate Fluency	An additional 1 year	6000 active words
Continued Language Development	5 to 7 years	Content Area Vocabulary

What can students typically do?

Preproduction (the “Silent Period”)

Show that they understand what’s been said by:

pointing to an item/picture or person
performing an act (such as standing up or opening the door)
gesturing or nodding (to show agreement or disagreement)
saying “Yes” or “No”

Early Production

Show that they understand and are learning to respond by:

answering with “Yes” or “No”
answering questions with one word
(for example, “Is the box big or little?” “Big.”)
putting two or more words together
(for example, “small square”)
using repetitive language patterns
(for example, “May I go to the bathroom?” “My name is John.”)

Speech Emergence

Show that they can use the language to communicate by:

using 3 or more words and short phrases
(for example, “I like pizza.” “Stand up.”)
using beginning dialog
using full simple sentences
(for example, “There are four pencils.”)

Intermediate Fluency

Show that they can use the language to communicate by:

using complex statements
(for example, “I want to learn about reptiles that live in Africa.”)
stating opinions
(for example, “I think this food is too spicy.”)
speaking at length
asking for clarification
(for example, “Can you explain the difference between a plain and a plateau to me?”)
share original thoughts

Continued Language Development

Show that they can communicate freely in the language by:

participating fully in the grade level classroom activities with support for understanding specialized academic language in the content area
continuing to grow in their cultural and background knowledge of the language

*adapted from Jerrell, I.A. “Natural Approach to Second Language Acquisition.” Modern Language Journal, 6, p. 325, 337; presented by Regla Armengol at the JSIS Language Immersion Boot Camp, August 2000.

Stephen Krashen’s Theory of Second Language Acquisition

vpawitrasari — Fri, 01 Feb 2008 10:54:09 +0000

Acquisition“Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill.” Stephen Krashen “Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language – natural communication – in which speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and understanding.” Stephen Krashen“The best methods are therefore those that supply ‘comprehensible input’ in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to hear. These methods do not force early production in the second language, but allow students to produce when they are ‘ready’, recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production.” Stephen Krashen“In the real world, conversations with sympathetic native speakers who are willing to help the acquirer understand are very helpful.” Stephen KrashenIntroductionStephen Krashen (University of Southern California) is an expert in the field of linguistics, specializing in theories of language acquisition and development. Much of his recent research has involved the study of non-English and bilingual language acquisition. During the past 20 years, he has published well over 100 books and articles and has been invited to deliver over 300 lectures at universities throughout the United States and Canada.This is a brief description of Krashen’s widely known and well accepted theory of second language acquisition, which has had a large impact in all areas of second language research and teaching since the 1980s. Description of Krashen’s Theory of Second Language Acquisition Krashen’s theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses:

the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis,
the Monitor hypothesis,
the Natural Order hypothesis,
the Input hypothesis,
and the Affective Filter hypothesis.

The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of all the hypotheses in Krashen’s theory and the most widely known among linguists and language practitioners. According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second language performance: ‘the acquired system’ and ‘the learned system’. The ‘acquired system’ or ‘acquisition‘ is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language – natural communication – in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act.The ‘learned system’ or ‘learning‘ is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge ‘about’ the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. According to Krashen ‘learning’ is less important than ‘acquisition’. (Veja o texto ao lado e também outra página em português sobre Acquisition/Learning). The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and defines the influence of the latter on the former. The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar. According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the learning system performs the role of the ‘monitor’ or the ‘editor’. The ‘monitor’ acts in a planning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are met: that is, the second language learner has sufficient time at his/her disposal, he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness, and he/she knows the rule.It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat limited in second language performance. According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is – or should be – minor, being used only to correct deviations from ‘normal’ speech and to give speech a more ‘polished’ appearance. Krashen also suggests that there is individual variation among language learners with regard to ‘monitor’ use. He distinguishes those learners that use the ‘monitor’ all the time (over-users); those learners who have not learned or who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge (under-users); and those learners that use the ‘monitor’ appropriately (optimal users). An evaluation of the person’s psychological profile can help to determine to what group they belong. Usually extroverts are under-users, while introverts and perfectionists are over-users. Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the over-use of the ‘monitor’.

The Natural Order hypothesis is based on research findings (Dulay & Burt, 1974; Fathman, 1975; Makino, 1980 cited in Krashen, 1987) which suggested that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a ‘natural order’ which is predictable. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late. This order seemed to be independent of the learners’ age, L1 background, conditions of exposure, and although the agreement between individual acquirers was not always 100% in the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition. Krashen however points out that the implication of the natural order hypothesis is not that a language program syllabus should be based on the order found in the studies. In fact, he rejects grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition.The Input hypothesis is Krashen’s attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language. In other words, this hypothesis is Krashen’s explanation of how second language acquisition takes place. So, the Input hypothesis is only concerned with ‘acquisition’, not ‘learning’. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along the ‘natural order’ when he/she receives second language ‘input’ that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage ‘i’, then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to ‘Comprehensible Input’ that belongs to level ‘i + 1′. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some ‘i + 1′ input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence. Finally, the fifth hypothesis, the Affective Filter hypothesis, embodies Krashen’s view that a number of ‘affective variables’ play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to ‘raise’ the affective filter and form a ‘mental block’ that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is ‘up’ it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place.

The Role of Grammar in Krashen’s View According to Krashen, the study of the structure of the language can have general educational advantages and values that high schools and colleges may want to include in their language programs. It should be clear, however, that examining irregularity, formulating rules and teaching complex facts about the target language is not language teaching, but rather is “language appreciation” or linguistics.The only instance in which the teaching of grammar can result in language acquisition (and proficiency) is when the students are interested in the subject and the target language is used as a medium of instruction. Very often, when this occurs, both teachers and students are convinced that the study of formal grammar is essential for second language acquisition, and the teacher is skillful enough to present explanations in the target language so that the students understand. In other words, the teacher talk meets the requirements for comprehensible input and perhaps with the students’ participation the classroom becomes an environment suitable for acquisition. Also, the filter is low in regard to the language of explanation, as the students’ conscious efforts are usually on the subject matter, on what is being talked about, and not the medium.This is a subtle point. In effect, both teachers and students are deceiving themselves. They believe that it is the subject matter itself, the study of grammar, that is responsible for the students’ progress, but in reality their progress is coming from the medium and not the message. Any subject matter that held their interest would do just as well.

REFERENCES Crystal, David The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge University Press, 1997.

Krashen, Stephen D. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Prentice-Hall International, 1987.

Krashen, Stephen D. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Prentice-Hall International, 1988.

Family’s Role in Children’s Second Language Ability

vpawitrasari — Fri, 01 Feb 2008 10:28:56 +0000

Family is a group of people who are related to each other, such as a mother, a father, and their children (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary). Family has a very important role in the children’s second language ability. The second language ability that we will discuss in this essay is English as Second Language (ESL). Second language ability is an ability that is had by every one in accepting and using other language beside his mother tongue. This second language ability actually can be learned and prepared in a very young age from 7 to 12 years old. These ages are the best time for children to learn languages either their mother tongue or foreign language simply because of their brain ability at those ages are in the best condition. It will be better if parents can start to introduce ESL in younger ages. In this case the family has the most important role in the progress of their children’s second language ability. Parents’ role in the family unconsciously has affected children a lot. In this modern era, women rather choose to be a career woman than a full time mother. They just leave their children to the nurse or nanny who is hired by them to take care of their children. Sometimes both parents are busy with their career and just take for granted on their children’s growing. Furthermore it affects their children language ability. Dan Edmund, in his essay “The Map of Relationship with Our Children,” discusses about the best way for parents in building a relationship with their children. One thing that we should remember: children learn from logical consequences. Thus, parents should seek to construct a plan, which emphasizes to children that there are expectations to be completed and this should be each day an all or nothing approach. Parents also need to examine how familial stressors and tensions as well as past traumas affect the emotional well being of our children. Children need to be taught reflective and critical thinking. Children need spiritual values and a moral compass, which can only be provided by parents and positive adult role models. It is important for parents to examine the root of misbehaviour. There are no perfect parents, but there are involved and caring parents who strive to create true relationship with their children and offer them loving guidance.This kind of situation closely related to the writer as one of the writer’s niece – Hanny – was also having career parents. Her parents provided her with the best playgroup in Jakarta and provided her a special nanny just for her. One day Hanny made a very shocking progress in her speaking. She spoke a lot to her mother, in Indonesia of course, and it includes all the inappropriate words for a child in her age. It really shocked her parents. In respond to that condition, her mother decided to take a week off from her work but she did not tell Hanny’s Nanny that she took a week off. She acted like a detective and observed all their activities. Finally she found out that while nursing her daughter, the nanny watched the television as well. It means Hanny also watched the television program with her and she received no guidance from her nanny about what the program. Due to the fact then Hanny’s parents tried to find a solution to this problem. They could not fire the nanny as both of them are working people. They have their own career, yet their daughter is also one of the most important things in their breath. By the end of their discussion, they decided to keep the nanny as she also loved Hanny a lot. However they bought a new television, which has a program lock so nobody could change the channel without entering a specific code or password. They also decided to join a cable TV program. All the television in their house was set to the Disney channel or other program for children. They just tried to limit the negative effects that may occurred when her nanny watch the television series. Beside the cable TV program, Hanny’s parents also gave more time to their daughter especially for anything related to her education progress.Every thing was going well and every body kept busy with their own activities. About six months later, Hanny shocked her parents again with another progress in her language ability. This time when her parents came home, she just greeted them in English. First, they just thought that it was just a coincident, but her mother made a test. Later when Hanny’s mother prepared dinner, she asked Hanny to help her and she mentioned it in English rather than in Indonesian. Beyond their expectation, Hanny responded very well. Finally, they just realized that it was not a coincident but it was the effects of her cable TV program. She was just a child who did not know anything about English as her second language but as she heard that language over and over every day then it stayed in her long term memory just as they way she learned Indonesian as her mother tongue. After that, her parents used English every time they communicate with her. They try to make her speak English actively. Previously, she just learned English passively through movies. After that, they wanted to make her speak up in English. The most impressive progress that Hanny showed to her parents was that she was just not only known the language but she also knows how to use each of the grammar correctly. Those benefits were beyond Hanny’s parents’ expectation when they decided to introduce her to the English through cable TV program. Children in Hanny’s age at that time, below 5 years old if I am not mistaken, were having their excellent ability in learning language. They can accept the second language as well as their mother tongue and it includes the correct pronunciation. They will be able to use and pronounce it correctly just the way the people of the language origin use and pronounce it. In this age, parents should give more attention to their children language education. If parents want to prepare their children to be able to use ESL, they should begin in the young age of their children; the younger to learn, the better the result. Hanny’s case is only one of the examples of parent’s role in their children’s second language ability. However as parents, we should also learn about children’s personality as it will also give strong effects to the children’s language ability. Frank Littauer in his book “Personality Plus for Parents” said that children, just like adult, are also divided into four main personalities: choleric, phlegmatic, sanguine and melancholic. Each of the personalities has its own characteristics and parents should know how to deal with each of these personalities, as each of them needs different attention and different guidance. It will be better for parents if they are willing to read this best seller book in order to be a better parents. It is not only mentioned how to handle children but teenager as well. By reading this book, it will be easier for parents to set up their role to their children. They will be able to create the perfect education method for their children at home. Each of the personalities has their own interest toward some activities or topic. Not every child can use Hanny’s method effectively. Parents should know their children better than any one else. If parents make mistake in understanding their children, then it will ruin the children’s ability to learn and to be creative. Though full day schooling is spreading all over big cities in Indonesia, but it does not mean that parents can rely fully on that kind of education. That kind of education is only an option for parents to prevent their children of having a not good friend outside their home and out of parents’ sight. However, parents’ roles are still the most important factors in children’s education – especially language ability – and growing. Besides helping to improve children’s language ability, parents’ role as Dan Edmund said that children need a figure of favorite adult – usually parents – as their role model. It means that they can build not only their children IQ, but EQ as well. Children are gift from God and parents are trusted to perform them in the best shape. No matter what our job as parents, we should never forget our responsibility to our children. Parents and family are still the best tools to create good children. From now on, start to understand our children better and create the best method to educate our children, especially to introduce English as their second language. Do not waste the first 12 years of our children’s age, as it is the best time for them to learn new language.

Teaching Translation Problems and Solutions

vpawitrasari — Fri, 01 Feb 2008 10:22:06 +0000

Author:

Prof. Canstanza Gerding Salas

Every translation activity has one or more specific purposes; and whichever they may be. The aim of translation is to serve as cross-cultural bilingual communication vehicle among people. This fact makes the translating process a harder task, sometimes resulting in a mediocre output that should undoubtedly be revised and post edited before delivery to the client. Largely, the quality of translation will depend on the quality of the translator, i.e. on her/ his knowledge, skills, training, cultural background, expertise and even mood! In addition to reading comprehension ability, the knowledge of specialized training and a wide cultural background, and the global vision of cross-cultural and interlingua communication, it is a must to learn how to handle the strategic and tactical tools for a good translating performance.

It is said that the most renowned translation theorists (Delisle, Newmark, Nida, Nord and Kussmaul) agree on the following aspects. Firstly, there is a comprehension and interpretation of texts, which implies the management of the approach principles to various types of texts, considering the textual, referential, cohesion and naturalness level; this competence includes reading comprehension and message interpretation (encoding and decoding). Secondly, re-wording is also important; means the application of the various strategies for the restitution process of the message (recoding) by choosing the appropriate method(s), techniques and procedures. Thirdly, translation theorists give great importance to the assessment of the result; i.e. evidencing the capacity to confront the translated text with the original text, being able to assess earnings and losses and showing self-correction capacity.

According to most translation theorists, the specific approaches to text translation tend to be similar. Translators should be aware of the fact that incorrect comprehension of a text considerably decreases the quality of the translation. Finding solutions to dilemmas is a constant in the work of the translator. Translators should be aware that meaning is not only conveyed by words. Based on Prof. Canstanza Gerding Salas’ experience with his undergraduate students who want to become translators, there are fifteen stages, which is useful to develop some workshop activities for the translation process. All of these stages are helpful if we want to conduct a workshop relating with translation.

Translation Problems

vpawitrasari — Fri, 01 Feb 2008 10:19:23 +0000

Translation, in term of methodology, may be literal translation or free translation, which used to be an irreconcilable dilemma in translation circle on which unfortunately no authoritative conclusion has been reached. Translating is not just to translate sentences of source language into target language. Sometimes we should always refer to our audiences. I have an experience in translating a medical text. I have to translate it for common people who have no knowledge in medical term. If we translate it faithfully in medical term, then our audiences will not be able to understand the contents. In this case, we must try to translate the text as simple as possible. Although maybe if someone who has a medical background read about it then he or she will laugh at it. The most important think that we must remember that we are not allowed to cheat the audience. We may use a simple choice of word but as long as it does not change the meaning of the original text. A translation should: 1) give a complete transcript of the ideas and sentiments in the original passage; 2) maintain the character of the style; and 3) have the ease and flow of the original text (A.F. Tytler: 1790). We can say that translation is like a woman: if it is faithful, it is not beautiful; if it is beautiful, it is not faithful.

Hello world!

vpawitrasari — Tue, 29 Jan 2008 09:43:46 +0000

My name is R.A.Vitria Pawitrasari, S.S.; I will be 29 years old on the next Feb 15 (please wish me all the best for the upcoming years ). I graduated from Faculty of Letters of Airlangga University on 2001. I am a government employee since January 2005, and I work as an English Lecturer in two faculties (Faculty of Economics and Faculty of Engineering) in Wijaya Kusuma Surabaya University (UWKS). At present, I am still a gradute student in Widya Mandala Catholic University, and this is my third semester. This weblog is one of my project for CALL

Please feel free to give any comment or suggestion to improve my weblog. Hope that in the future, this weblog can be used as a media to share information.

Anyway, there is one pray for this year: I do hope that in the middle of this year, I will be able to finish my thesis, and get marry…. Insya’Allah

All the best for you,
Vitria